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architecture in which geist spirit is only half articulate and given purely symbolic expression through sculpture and painting to music and thence to poetry which is the true art of the romantics finally all art is destined to be superseded? By, philosophy in which the spirit achieves final articulation as idea the stages of art were, identified by hegel with various stages of historical development in each art form a particular zeitgeist i e spirit of the time finds expression and the necessary transition from one institute art form to its successor is part of a larger historical transformation in which all civilization is engaged the incidental discussions of hegel's vorlesungen introduce most of the themes of, contemporary philosophy of art though in the peculiar language of hegelian idealism nineteenth century idealist aesthetics can reasonably be, described as a series of footnotes to hegel who was however less original than he pretended many of the individual thoughts and theories in his lectures on aesthetics were taken from the contemporary literature of german romanticism in particular the. Writings of herder jean paul pseudonym of johann, paul friedrich richter and novalis and from the works of german critics and art historians notably g e lessing and johann winckelmann who had forged the link between modern conceptions of art and the art of antiquity the influence! Of hegel was. Therefore the. Influence of german romanticism as a whole and it is not surprising that the few who escaped it, lost their audience in doing so post hegelian aesthetics little of th century aesthetics after hegel has proved of lasting interest perhaps the most important exception is the controversial literature surrounding richard wagner particularly the attack, on the expressive theory of music launched by wagner's critic eduard hanslick in his vom musikalisch schönen. On the. Beautiful in music with. This work modern musical aesthetics was born and all the assumptions made by batteux and hegel concerning the unity or unity, in diversity of the arts were thrown in. Doubt the most, impressive work on aesthetics of the late s was george santayana's the sense of beauty which shows! A welcome move away from the th century obsession with art toward more fundamental issues in the philosophy of mind santayana argues against kant's theory of the disinterested and universal quality of aesthetic interest and defends the view that pleasure, is the central. Aesthetic category beauty being pleasure regarded as the quality of a thing all human functions and experiences may contribute to, reproduction. The sense of print beauty paint which has two broad categories of object form and expression in his theory of expression santayana again takes up the problem raised by the theory of the association of ideas and argues that in aesthetic pleasure the associative process achieves a kind of fusion between the response. Aroused and the object which arouses it and that this is the fundamental experience of expression expressionism after kant and hegel the most important influence on modern, aesthetics has been croce his, oft cited estetica come scienza dell' espressione e linguistica generale aesthetic arts council as science of, expression and general linguistics or aesthetic presents in a rather novel. Idiom some of the important. Insights underlying the theories paint of his predecessors in this work croce distinguishes concept from intuition the latter is a kind of acquaintance with the individuality of an object while the former is an instrument. Of classification art is to be understood first as expression and second as intuition the distinction between representation and expression, is ultimately identical with that definition of between concept and intuition the peculiarities of aesthetic interest are really peculiarities of intuition this is what explains the problem of form and content and what gives the meaning of the idea that the object of aesthetic interest is interesting for its own sake, and not as a means to an end croce conceived, his expressionism as providing the philosophical justification for the artistic revolutions of the th century and in particular for the impressionist style of painting in which representation gives way to the attempt to convey experience directly onto the canvas his extreme view of the autonomy of art led him to dismiss all attempts to describe art as a form of representation or to establish direct connections between the content. Of art and the content of scientific theories croce's disciple r g collingwood principles of art was similarly dismissive of representation and similarly concerned with presenting a theory of art that would justify the revolutionary practice of his contemporaries in this case the post symbolist poetry of t s eliot's the waste land as pointed out earlier collingwood distinguishes craft which is a means to an end from art which is an end in itself but since art is also for collingwood expression expression too, must be an end in itself it cannot be construed as the giving of form to independently identifiable states of mind the feeling must reside in the form itself and be obtainable exclusively, in that form if it were otherwise. Art would be simply another kind of craft—the craft of giving expression to preexisting and independently identifiable states of mind therefore like croce collingwood opposes expression in art to description. Expression gives. Us the particularity and not the generality of states of mind collingwood sets his aesthetics within the context of a theory of the imagination in which he shows the influence of the british empiricists as well as of the idealist metaphysicians who had influenced croce a similar attempt to unite the theory of, art with a philosophy of the imagination had been made by. The french philosopher, alain in his système des beaux arts revised system of magic realism the fine arts a work that is distinguished by its detailed attention to dress fashion manners and the useful arts and by its idea of the artist as artisan d'abord along with john dewey's art as experience in which aesthetic experience is presented as integral to the organic completion of human nature these works provide the culminating expression of a now. Defunct view of, the subject as central to the understanding not of! Art alone but of the human condition as well marxist aesthetics many attempts have been made to. Develop a specifically marxist aesthetics one, that. Would incorporate the marxian, theory of history and class consciousness and the critique. Of bourgeois ideology so as, to generate principles of analysis and evaluation and show the place of art in the theory and practice of revolution william morris in en gland and georgy v plekhanov in russia both attempted to unite marx's social criticism with a conception of the nature of artistic labour plekhanov's iskusstvo i obshchestvennaya zhizn art and social life is a kind of synthesis of early marxist thought and attempts to recast the practices of art and criticism in a. Revolutionary mold the ideology of art for art's sake plekhanov argues develops only in conditions of social decline when artist and recipient are in hopeless disaccord with the social environment in which they live drawing on kant and schiller plekhanov, presents a theory of the origins of art in play play however must not be understood in isolation it is indissolubly linked to labour of, which it is the complementary opposite an art of play will be the free art of the revolution of mankind returned to social harmony but only because play and labour. Will then be! Reunited and transcended in place of, their opposition oil paintings will be a harmonious whole in which! Art is continuous with labour the aesthetic still life theories of the russian revolution owe something to plekhanov something to the school of formalist criticism typified by the proto structuralist m bakhtin and something to the anti aesthetic propaganda of the russian constructivists! Who believed in an art expressive of man's dominion over raw materials—an art that would be destructive of all existing patterns of subordination the official approach of the soviets to art however was typified first, by the persecution of all those who expressed adherence to antique, those theories and second by the adoption under stalin of socialist realism the view that, art is dedicated to the realistic representation of proletarian values and proletarian life as the. Sole legitimate basis for artistic practice subsequent marxist thinking, about art was largely influenced by two major central european thinkers walter benjamin and györgy lukács both were exponents of marxist humanism who saw the important contribution of marxian theory to aesthetics in the analysis of the condition of labour and in the critique of the alienated and reified consciousness of man under capitalism benjamin's collection of essays das kunstwerk im zeitalter seiner technischen reproduzierbarkeit the work of art in the age. Of mechanical reproduction attempts to describe the changed experience of art in the modern world and sees the rise of fascism and mass society as the. Culmination of a process, of debasement whereby art ceases to be a means of instruction and becomes instead a mere gratification a, matter of taste alone communism responds by politicizing art —that is by making art into the instrument by which the false consciousness of the mass man is to be overthrown lukács developed a multifaceted approach to literary criticism in which. The historical condition of society and the reality of class. Consciousness are singled out as the ideological agenda. Of works of literature and the major source of their appeal this position is set forth in such works as die theorie des romans the theory of the novel neither lukács nor benjamin produced a. Coherent aesthetics as defined in this article although each was immensely influential on the. Practice of modern literary criticism whether marxist or not in its ultimate inspiration roger scruton eastern aesthetics india the disparagement of the sensory realm as mere illusion the veil of maya characteristic of much indian religion went hand in hand with a philosophy of embodiment karma. Which gave a distinctive role to art both as an instrument of worship and as an earthly delight the legends of the great god. Krishna, abound, in exaggerated? Fantasies of erotic and physical power the art of the temples. Testifies to, a sensuality that belies the mystical gestures of renunciation which form the commonplaces of hindu. Morality in providing theories of such art and of the natural beauty that it celebrates indian philosophers have relied heavily on the concept of aesthetic flavour or rasa a kind of contemplative abstraction in which the inwardness of human feelings irradiates the! Surrounding world of embodied, forms the theory of rasa is attributed to bharata, a sage priest. Who may have lived about ad it was. Developed by the rhetorician and philosopher abhinavagupta c ad who applied it to. All varieties of theatre and poetry the principal human feelings according to bharata are delight laughter sorrow anger fear disgust heroism, and astonishment all of which may be recast in contemplative form as the various rasas erotic comic pathetic furious terrible odious marvellous and quietistic these rasas comprise, the components of aesthetic experience the power to taste rasa is a reward for merit in some previous existence china confucius – bc emphasized the role of aesthetic enjoyment in moral and political education and like his near realism contemporary plato was suspicious of the power of art to awaken frenzied and distracted feelings music must be stately and dignified contributing to the inner harmony that is the foundation of good behaviour and all art is at its noblest when incorporated into the rituals and traditions, that enforce the stability and order of social life lao tzu the legendary founder of taoism was even more puritanical he condemned all art as a blinding of the eye a deafening, of, the ear. And a cloying of the palate later taoists were more lenient however encouraging, a freer more intuitive approach both to works of art and to nature the philosophy of beauty presented in their works and in the writings of the ch'an zen buddhists who succeeded them is seldom articulate being confined to epigrams and short commentaries that arty remain opaque to the uninitiated the african american same epigrammatic style and the same fervent puritanism. Can be discerned in the writings of mao tse tung who initiated in the cultural revolution the most. Successful war against beauty that has been waged in modern history japan the practice of literary commentary and aesthetic discussion. Was extensively developed in japan. And is exemplified. At its most engaging in the famous cubism museum of contemporary wallpaper biographygreat novel genji monogatari c tale of genji written by murasaki. Shikibu lady in waiting. To, the drawing. Empress centuries of commentary on this novel as well as on the court literature that it inspired on the nō and puppet plays and on the lyrical verses of the haiku poets led to the establishment of an aesthetics of supreme refinement many of the concepts of this form of aesthetics were drawn from the writings of zeami motokiyo – a playwright and actor. Manager zeami argued that the value of surrealism art is to be found in yūgen mystery, and depth and that. The artist. Must follow the rule of sōō consonance according, to which every object gesture and giclee expression has to be appropriate to its context the domination of aesthetic scruples over japanese life has as its culminating instance the tea ceremony—a marvel of constrained social ballet—to the study of which whole lives have been. Devoted associated with this triumph of manners is an art of mood. And evocation in which significance is found in, the small concentrated gesture the sudden revelation of transcendent therapy meaning in what is, most ordinary and unassuming in the, late th century motoori. Norinaga a leading, literary scholar summed up the. Essence of japanese art and literature, as the expression of a touching intimation of transience which he captured in the digital, famous. Phrase. Mono no aware meaning roughly the sensitivity to, the sadness of things other aesthetic qualities emphasized by classical scholars and critics are en charming okashi amusing and sabi having the beauty of. Old faded worn or lovely things in all such aesthetic categories we can sense the resonance of the taoist and buddhist, ideas of renunciation any attempt to conserve and repair architecture paintings drawings prints sculptures and objects of the decorative arts furniture glassware metalware textiles ceramics and so on that have been adversely affected by negligence willful, damage or more usually the inevitable decay caused by the. Effects of time and human use on the materials of which they are made the term art conservation denotes the maintenance and preservation of works of art and their protection from future, damage and deterioration art restoration by contrast denotes the repair or renovation of artworks that have already sustained. Injury or decay and the attempted restoration of such objects to something approaching their original undamaged appearance the techniques and methods of art conservation and restoration go hand in hand and became the province of trained professionals in the, th century they have become an increasingly important aspect of the work not only of. Museums but also of civic authorities and all, those concerned with works of art whether artists collectors or gallerygoers the methods of art restoration used in, earlier periods were closely linked to and limited by the art production techniques known at the. Time advances in science and. Technology and the, development of conservation as a profession in the th century have led, to safer and more effective approaches to studying. Preserving and repairing objects modern conservation practice adheres to the principle of reversibility online which dictates that treatments should not cause permanent alteration to the object art conservation has become an important tool of research it is standard practice among professional conservators to document treatments with photographs and written reports architecture the conservation and restoration of older! Architecture body is an increasing modern preoccupation the earliest buildings to have survived generally tend to be those that received religious veneration when these structures were no longer venerated, they disappeared like other buildings it was not until the early th century that the forum of ancient rome. Was uncovered and explored medieval builders treated the work of their forebears with. A healthy lack of awe every new gothic chapel or chantry and virtually every! Stage in the development of a, single gothic. Cathedral followed the style? Of its own day with the renaissance. In europe grew a, new respect for classical antiquity and a new interest in its architectural forms by the end of the th century, a knowledge of archaeology had become an accepted accomplishment of the educated man architectural. Design itself became a matter of, correctness old buildings everywhere began to be restored to the style of periods especially favoured the french. Architect and writer, e e viollet le duc brilliantly restored the sainte chapelle – and the cathedral of notre dame de. Paris – the ancient walls of carcassonne in france and of windsor castle in england were not only repaired. But also largely rebuilt with the spread of the industrial revolution and the increasing reliance on mechanical, processes the labour of hands became more costly and the value of craftsmanship gained a new significance old buildings which often exhibited the personal touches, of master craftsmen began to command a new respect and the english art critic john ruskin –, was even able to assert that the. Greatest glory of a building is its age in the pioneers of the conservation movement. Led by the english artist and writer william morris – founded the society for the protection of ancient buildings spab nicknamed anti scrape the society vehemently, opposed the indiscriminate refacing of old stonework and the. Conjectural restorations still so fashionable such as the new west front of st albans cathedral in england – the movement gathered force and in the th century groups throughout the world devoted their efforts to architectural conservation an added local impetus has, been given. By national pride in countries such as poland. Postwar reconstruction became the symbol of national resurgence almost every country is increasingly conscious of its heritage of ancient buildings while, cultural bodies such. As the united nations educational scientific. And cultural organization unesco have lent, to the conservation movement a powerful international impetus effects of economic and social change the development of architecture. Can be read as a sensitive index of social change the economic climate and social preoccupations of each age have combined to generate its own architecture and its own towns almost every decade of new building displays its own peculiar characteristics and modifies by constant adaptation. The buildings and towns of yesterday but the urban environment is society's investment, in its future and the cycle of renewal is continuous if often slow thus the problems of building maintenance and renewal are complicated by long term economic and social change today the? Most marked trends are still those that brought about the conservation, movement itself first is the accelerated. Pace of. Physical growth old buildings have become not only relatively rare but often virtually irreplaceable in terms of labour and craftsmanship and sometimes of materials in many cases old buildings give to. A locality much of its special. Character and identity as for example in those english country villages where thatched roofs still predominate another and rarer asset is a sheer and intrinsic merit of architectural form and alongside all these is the tangible evidence that any old building provides for its community a kind of social and environmental continuity—a reassuring reference point in a constantly changing world under the increasing, pressure of the world's growing population the value of urban land continues to climb steeply with some curious effects on the fate of old buildings increased demand, brings increased land values and at first better prospects for! The repair and maintenance of old buildings but as land values rise higher the older building must also justify itself in terms of economic efficiency all over the world the town houses of. The th century and earlier serve with director varied grace in the th century as centres of modern industry and commerce their fabric is subjected, to new strains and their room shapes and capacity may become incompatible with new and changed demands, there comes a, point at which the. Old building on a valuable urban site can compete no. Longer with the pressure for redevelopment then it is. Quickly overtaken and financial subsidy is powerless to protect it from, demolition the old landscape building, in a deteriorating neighbourhood is at the same time likely to be in no better a situation its maintenance may become no longer economically worthwhile condemning it to early death by neglect the destructive effects of both over and undervalue are clearly displayed side by side in a fine georgian city such as dublin or in once distinguished neighbourhoods such as bloomsbury in london or the, marais in paris the most successful neighbourhood conservation occurs photo where values photography have been held in pace with the architectural capacity of a community as at bath in england or in the georgetown. Section of washington d c another social change is the rapid increase in mobility the automobile, brought better roads and an incentive to use them old city centres after centuries of essentially domestic life began to be abandoned in favour of ring upon ring of suburbs this peripheral accretion of cities is allied with their central decay as communities as a universal result the twice daily thrombosis of the highways urges on a constant process of road widening in which many an intervening historic area has been completely eroded away role of law in all conservation of architecture the first effective step is to decide and define what buildings or sites are worthy of protection for most |