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the plaques their narrative content and in some cases their attempt at perspective have been attributed to the influence of illustrations in books carried by the portuguese who were in contact with benin from the late, th century the technique of brass casting however had been introduced at least. A century earlier bronze bars had been imported probably from the interior as early as the th century but these were made into bracelets, in benin city only by smithing and chasing techniques not by casting. There, were certain limitations on the use of brass and also! Ivory cult objects such as memorial beads were made of wood. When intended for nonroyal purposes but of brass for the king regalia if made for the king were of ivory but otherwise of brass the regalia of king and chiefs also included coral beads and red cloth the colour red signifying a mystical threat to the enemies of the kingdom wood was used for staffs commemorating ancestors and these were placed on their, altars pottery heads were made for shrines in the brass casters' quarter and life size groups of royal figures in mud are still made for the cult of olokun divinity of the sea and of wealth outside benin city the edo peoples live in villages that have many localized cults of nearby topographical features and founder heroes the ekpo masquerade occurring to the south and east of benin is performed by the warrior age group in ceremonies to purify the village ritually and to maintain health at ughoton to the southwest of benin a different type of mask is used in the cult of the water spirit igbile both the cult and the sculptural style seem to have derived from the ijo a number of bronze castings found in benin have been, classified tentatively as the lower niger bronze industries they include pieces from tada and jebba in the region now. Inhabited by the nupe people who, regard them as relics associated with their own mythical ancestor and other pieces from various parts of the delta of the niger river ijo the niger delta. Is occupied by ijo fishermen whose masks for the cults of the water spirits are made in the form of aquatic animals especially hippopotamus and crocodile the western ijo use ejiri figures in which the head of the household is represented, upon a highly schematic quadruped that is said to represent the guardian spirit of the family. Similar objects are made by. The edo speaking urhobo to the north of the ijo where, they are? Used in a cult of, aggressiveness by the warriors, among the eastern ijo shrines for the water spirits have figures that are often large though frequently kept hidden portrait they also have masks similar to those of the western ijo worn by men of the ekine society in addition there are shrines that contain sculptures for the village. Heroes and ancestors in some kalabari communities rectangular screens are fashioned by carpentry into? A low relief frontal group in which a commemorated ancestor is flanked by supporting figures—much? Like the king? In benin plaques by which the screens may have been inspired about two centuries ago all ijo sculpture exhibits a, four square schematic style that contrasts starkly with the relative naturalism of surrounding styles such as. Those of yorubaland or. Benin igbo on both sides of the niger but mainly to the east live the igbo traditionally, they have lived in small prints and often isolated settlements scattered through the forest only on the northern and western edges of the area under influence from igala and benin are hereditary rulers found in igbo society there is strong social pressure toward individual distinction. And men can move upward through successive grades by demonstrating their, achievements and their, generosity one of, the traditional representations of this was the ikenga that part of oneself enabling personal achievement with cult figures representing the attributes of distinction the lack of overall centralization among. The igbo speaking peoples has been conducive to the development of a great variety of art styles and cultural practices the earliest sculpture known from igboland is from the village of igbo ukwu where, the grave of a man of distinction and a! Ritual store dating from the th century ad contained both chased copper objects and elaborate castings of leaded bronze the earliest artistic castings from black africa these pieces consist of ritual vessels and other ceremonial objects with intricate surface decoration often small animals and insects represented in the round a very great variety of masks is found among the igbo the masks of wood or fabric are employed in, a variety of dramas social satires sacred rituals for ancestors and invocation of the gods initiation second burials and public festivals, which now include christmas and independence, day. Some masks appear at only one. Festival but the majority appear at many or all best known are those of the northern igbo mmo society which represents the spirits of deceased maidens and their mothers with masks symbolizing beauty among the southern. Igbo the ekpe society introduced from the cross river area uses contrasting masks to represent the maiden spirit and the elephant spirit the latter representing prints ugliness and aggression and the former representing beauty and peacefulness. A! Similar contrast is found in their okorosia masks which correspond to the mmo of the northern igbo the eastern igbo are best known for masquerades associated with the iko okochi harvest festival in. Which the forms of the masks are determined by tradition though the content of the play varies from year to year museum stock characters include mbeke the european mkpi the he, goat and mba which appear in pairs one representing a boy dressed, as a girl mimicking the behaviour, of a girl the other representing the girl being satirized most impressive are the ijele masks of the northern igbo which are feet cm high consisting of platforms feet cm in diameter supporting tiers of. Figures made of coloured cloth and representing everyday scenes they honour the dead to. Ensure the continuity and well being of the community wooden figures are carved for ancestors of both sexes varying from less than to more than feet less landscapes historythan to more than cm in height those representing founders of the village, are kept photographs in a central shrine and sometimes, become patrons of the market a great many other decorative wooden objects are made including musical instruments doors stools mirror frames trays for offering kola nuts to guests dolls and a variety of small figures used in divination shrines called mbari which contain elaborate tableaux of painted unfired earth are made in honour of the earth spirit? In villages near owerri in southern nigeria and in igbo communities to the west of the niger elaborate pottery groups representing a man. And his family are made for the yam cult there seems to be no tradition of pottery sculpture in other igbo groups ibibio among the oldest sculptures of tropical africa are several hundred ancestor figures called ekpu of the ibibio coastal trade centre of oron some of which are thought to date from the late th century, they are bearded figures to feet to cm high and are so individual as to suggest portraiture despite their schematic style oron is one group of ibibio. Speaking villages as with, the igbo ibibio is not a single group but several networks of independent communities with. Local unity represented by secret associations and their masquerades the ekpo society uses black masks often of naturalistic, appearance and with movable jaws to maintain social order and propitiate the ancestors some of these masks represent disease and deformity ekoi the ekoi peoples anyang boki ejagham keaka and yako are. Best known for their large skin covered masks which have two or even three faces and for their smaller headpieces which represent a head or an entire figure the headpieces and masks have metal teeth inlaid eyes and! Frequently pegs. To represent hair which alternatively may be carved in elaborate coils they are used by several masking associations in the northern ekoi area around ikom are found circles of large stones akwanshi from to feet to cm high carved in low relief to represent human figures they, are thought to, be, no earlier than the th century fulani the fulani are in origin nomadic pastoralists who range from senegal to the cameroon grasslands they are particularly, known for, their body decoration see below personal decoration and for their engraved milk gourds in addition in mali settled groups of fulani, artists work as goldsmiths leatherworkers blacksmiths. Weavers and potters hausa, northern nigeria has long! Been dominated by the hausa who galery since the th century have been ruled by fulani emirs for centuries. Their buildings have been decorated inside with molded and painted low relief decorations which have more recently been applied to the exteriors both decorative and of a high technical standard are their, crafts, leatherwork. For saddles bags hilts and sheaths gold and silver jewelry ironwork pottery weaving, and embroidery nupe the nupe have been for some centuries and are best known for their weaving embroidery beadmaking. Wood carving and sheet, metalwork they have produced many doors carved. In low, relief in a blend of decorative designs carved and painted masks, are made for the elo a purely secular performance intended, only to entertain nowadays held on the prophet's birthday the elo mask has a human face with a motif sometimes a human figure rising above it flanked with stylized horns the gugu masquerader wears a cloth mask decorated with cowrie shells but sometimes yoruba masks are used the ndako gboya appears to be indigenous a spirit that affords protection from witches it is controlled by a small secret society that cleanses communities by invitation the mask! Consists of a tall tube of white cotton supported. Inside on a bamboo pole about feet cm long that nupe art should have been? Influenced by the yoruba is. Not surprising yoruba live among the nupe and there. Are bronzes in the nupe villages of tada and jebba—one of them apparently an ife work and another in a more recent yoruba style others of. This group which include, the largest castings ever made in black africa share features with. Benin sculpture and have other elements that are, widely distributed in? Time and space on the lower niger nupe tradition says these, sculptures were taken from idah the igala capital in the early th century many were probably already ancient but nothing is known of ancient igala bronze casting other groups in northern nigeria there is a great diversity of sculptural tradition among peoples inhabiting the niger and benue valleys the mountainous regions around the jos plateau in the centre of the area and adamawa to the east this is altogether an area of astonishing diversity some of the better known traditions include those, of the igala idoma afo tiv and jukun all of the benue valley central africa cameroon grasslands the cameroon. Grasslands area can be divided into three stylistic regions the bamileke area is composed of a number of separate. Chiefdoms, the best known. Being the. Bangwa and the bacham here sculptured human figures are composed of a highly expressive blend of rounded and angular forms the bamum kingdom developed, roundness of form almost to, its extreme producing figures with big inflated cheeks among the tikar bekom and babanki the forms are rounded but not exaggerated throughout the grasslands there have been exchanges of art objects and diffusion of the. Brass casting technique confusing the more detailed stylistic picture in general however all of these societies are hierarchical with sculpture mainly intended to reflect the power and importance of. The king frank willettjohn picton, gabon three major groups, live in the equatorial rainforests of gabon the fang and related peoples the ogowe ogooué group including the ashira and, mpongwe and the kota fang masks and figures, are characterized by schematic simplicity typical of fang work are bieri boxes. Containing the skulls and bones of deceased ancestors and carved with figures intended to represent, their protective influence fang masks such as. Those worn. By itinerant troubadours and for hunting and punishing sorcerers are, painted white with facial features outlined in black the art of the ogowe tribes. Particularly the mpongwe is closely artis tied to death rituals their masks painted white to symbolize death represent dead female ancestors though they are worn by male relatives of the deceased the kota create stylistically unique reliquary figures called, mbulu ngulu which are covered with a sheet of brass or copper like the fang the kota keep the. Skulls and bones of, ancestors in containers which consist here of a basket surmounted by the carved figure congo kinshasa and congo brazzaville the region formerly referred to as the congo consists of the modern republics of congo kinshasa and. Congo brazzaville which are separated by the congo river the area falls into two major geographic divisions. The northern half is an equatorial rainforest inhabited by peoples who hunt farm and fish the southern half is a savanna it is in the villages of this southern region that the most highly developed political social and, artistic culture has evolved in general the styles of! The two nations can be characterized. As a combination of symbolism and realism wherein naturalistic forms— predominantly human and animal figures—are rendered not in precise imitation of nature but in, an exaggerated manner it is this non naturalistic reality that distinguishes the art of this region. From west african art the sculptural forms are most commonly wood carvings masks ancestor figures fetishes bowls boxes cups staffs pots and lids pipes. Combs tools weapons and musical instruments similar objects are also carved in ivory and in some cases copper brass and iron are used in rare instances stone figures have been found, painting is. Not utilized greatly as a separate medium but carved pieces frequently are painted masks and other pieces are covered with polychrome the colours applied in wide patches and often in planes and angles upon smooth surfaces in the huts in which rituals take place wooden figures are hung on brightly painted walls reeds are woven into decorated mats used for sleeping. And for wrapping the dead and into baskets and boxes which are used to contain foodstuffs as well as ritual objects basketry. Patterns and sometimes container forms have been imitated by wood carvers textile weavers too use decorative motifs derived from basketry pottery making has depended on four forming techniques molding ring building modeling on a board and more recently throwing on the potter's wheel pottery forms are influenced by those of basketry and wood carving as well as by vegetal forms such as the calabash decoration consists of traditional geometric incised or painted patterns. The pots are used for cooking and for carrying and storing food or as ceremonial objects pottery and embroidery are arts practiced by women whereas sculpture and weaving are male activities stylistic differences within the two major regions of. The southern savanna and the northern rainforest can best be seen by subdividing the areas according to the kingdoms that have determined the social, political and artistic lives of the people the savanna falls into the, lower congo kuba and luba cultural, areas and. The rainforest into the northern northeast and northwest areas lower congo kongo cultural area, in the lower congo area three, sub styles can be identified the areas known as the coastal region the kwango river area and the teke region seated mother and child figures are found throughout the lower congo region the human figure is used by the peoples of the lower congo in the decoration of almost? Every work—from ceremonial objects and domestic utensils. To pieces of furniture and architectural ornament although the majority of carved figures are made of wood many important pieces in metal and ivory have been found among them are numerous, metal figures clearly influenced by the portuguese missionaries— statuettes of christian saints for example in addition to the figures crucifixes were also produced in brass or bronze using the lost wax or cire perdue method. Of casting ancestor, figures and fetishes carved by the kongo and related peoples who live along the coast and in the mayombé forest are more realistically expressive than the. Figures of. Other areas every detail rendered the deceased ancestor is portrayed standing seated, or kneeling each? Attitude revealing the, dignity and. Pride with which he is viewed the fetishes. Are less realistically portrayed although the head robert is treated in great detail the arms and legs are stylized appearing to be of equal size and often the sex of. The figure is not indicated. Whereas, the ancestor figure typically appears serene the countenance of the fetish can be protective or malevolent the nkongi a group of fetishes characteristic. Of. The coast and the mayombé forest consist mainly of human figures but there are some that combine. The forms of a dog and a leopard sometimes with two heads the nkongi fetish is often completely covered by. Nails and other sharply pointed metal objects driven into its surface these objects mark each appeal made to the spirit embodied in it. All fetishes whether they represent. Humans or animals whether made of wood? Horn ivory or even calabash must contain a number of magical substances such as blood along with animal vegetable and mineral matter these ingredients called bilongo are placed in a cavity usually. In the figure's stomach but sometimes in the back or head the opening of the cavity is covered by a shell or in some modern fetishes by a piece of mirror the magical substances are believed to invest the fetish figure with power and make it possible for, the devotee to establish contact with the spirit nkisi another object common to the lower congo. Area produced primarily by the coastal peoples especially the. Woyo is a wooden pot lid carved with pictorial narratives representing proverbs the pot lid which covered the meal served by a wife to her husband. Illustrates a particular complaint about their marital relationship—a wife's displeasure with her husband for example when that lid was used the husband was obliged to discuss and resolve the problem publicly with the help of mealtime witnesses! This manner of family arbitration was traditional and each woman was. Arty given a variety of carved pot lids on the occasion of her marriage the kwango river area is the home of the yaka suku mbala and pende whose masks figures and other carved objects show a dynamic stylization characterized by geometric patterns formed by the relationship of stylized body parts yaka figures lack the organic integration of naturalistic forms produced by the neighbouring kongo the turned up nose is a characteristic of yaka figures and masks large life, size carved figures stand at the entrances of yaka initiation huts the inside walls of which are covered with painted bark panels tudansi, masks worn by the young men at their initiation into manhood and decorated with polychrome and raffia. Collars are topped with animal figures the dramatically painted kakungu mask worn by the leader of the initiation rite represents a gaunt face with exaggerated nose and cheeks this mask is thought to embody terrific powers and. Is. Kept in its own hut similar to the yaka tudansi mask is the hemba mask of the, nearby suku which is only slightly less grotesque carved suku figures show more rounded forms than do the yaka mbala figures have three different types of faces elongated wide and. Lozenge shaped the features especially the forehead and! Chin project forcefully and the head is surmounted by a crestlike coiffure mbala mother and child figures are much more powerfully rigid in style than others in the congo region pende masks made in a realistic style, are among the most dramatic works of all african. Art like, the yaka small pende masks fit over the head helmet style representing the mysterious powers to which boys are introduced at initiation pende masks are worn in comic entertainments performed during the ceremonies the masks have. Facial forms that repeat the angular pattern established by the heavy triangular eyelids and they are topped by a bushy coif of raffia smaller versions of these masks, are, made as amulets in ivory or wood the pende fashion their, figures in a style identical to that of their masks one type of figure called tungunlungu representing the female ancestry of the, tribe is placed in front of the chief's house the teke live on the banks of the congo river they are best known for their fetishes called butti, which serve in the cult of a wide range of supernatural forces sent by the ancestors who are not worshiped directly each figure has its? Own specific purpose not related directly to its appearance when a figure is carved for a newborn child, part of the placenta is! Placed, in the stomach cavity of the figure while the rest is buried inside the father's hut where the family's fetish, figures are kept the figure serves to protect the child until puberty figures of identical appearance serve also for success in hunting trading and other activities each figure's! Specific purpose being known only to the owner teke figures are characterized. By, an angular geometric form with linear ornamentation teke face masks flat disks painted in bright polychrome are highly. Schematic forms bearing no naturalistic associations, kuba cultural area the art of the kuba is one of the most highly developed of all african traditions and significant cultural accomplishments are part? Of their heritage mucu mushanga, their th king was credited with the invention, of fire and he was the first to make clothing out of bark, cloth shamba bolongongo c the rd king who introduced weaving and textile manufacture to his people was also the first, ruler to have his portrait carved in wood shamba bolongongo's portrait! Established a tradition! Of such portraiture among the kuba people the kings typically sit facing forward with legs crossed the left in front of the right the right hand with fingers extended rests on the right knee and the left hand holds the royal dagger geometric patterns. Cover the stomach and are continued on the back of. The figure the sculptures also include objects significant to each particular king identifying his own. Personal accomplishments developing from the court style was a popular style which utilized. Geometric forms instead of the well modeled full volumed forms of the court figures kuba fetishes emphasizing only essential organs are highly schematic the popular style can also be found in the utensils and textiles. Produced by the kuba the kuba metalsmith worked with copper iron and brass making weapons and tools to be admired as well. |